Why Can't a Man Be More Like a Woman? Read online

  Why Can’t a Man Be More Like a Woman?

  Lewis Wolpert is a distinguished developmental biologist, and is Emeritus Professor in Cell and Developmental Biology at University College, London. He is the author of, among others, The Unnatural Nature of Science and Malignant Sadness, which was described by Anthony Storr as ‘the most objective short account of all the various approaches to depression’. His most recent book, You’re Looking Very Well: The Surprising Nature of Getting Old, was published in 2011.

  by the same author

  The Unnatural Nature of Science

  Malignant Sadness

  Six Impossible Things Before Breakfast

  How We Live and Why We Die

  You’re Looking Very Well

  Copyright © 2014 by Lewis Wolpert

  First published in 2014 by Faber and Faber Limited

  All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without the express written consent of the publisher, except in the case of brief excerpts in critical reviews or articles. All inquiries should be addressed to Skyhorse Publishing, 307 West 36th Street, 11th Floor, New York, NY 10018.

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  Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available on file.

  Cover design by Mary Belibasakis

  Cover photo credit Thinkstock

  Print ISBN: 978-1-62636-126-3

  Ebook ISBN: 978-1-62873-575-8

  Printed in the United States of America

  Contents

  Acknowledgements

  1 Questions

  2 Discrimination

  3 Modified Women

  4 Two Sexes

  5 Brain

  6 Children

  7 Sex

  8 Emotions

  9 Mathematics

  10 Skills

  11 Language

  12 Health

  13 Differences

  References

  Index

  Acknowledgements

  I am grateful for the advice given to me by my editors Julian Loose and Kate Murray-Browne at Faber, and my agent Anne Engel. Dr J. Herberg and Professor C. Tickle did valuable editing. My partner Alison Hawkes made a major contribution by helping, for many hours, to revise the final version of the book, and I could not have completed it without her assistance. Paula Turner made a valuable contribution by editing the manuscript and Sarah Barlow in reading the proofs.

  1

  Questions

  The female is softer in disposition, is more mischievous, less simple, more impulsive and more attentive to the nurture of the young. The male, on the other hand, is more spirited than the female, more savage, more simple and less cunning.

  Aristotle

  My title is inspired by the famous plaint by Professor Higgins in the musical My Fair Lady. The song is about the difference between the sexes. It comes very clearly from an amusingly, ludicrously biased male point of view, but it serves to remind us that the differences between men and women are a major issue in our lives. However, I called the book Why Can’t a Man be More Like a Woman? since men, as I shall show, are essentially biologically modified women.

  So just how different are men from women, and are there important differences that are genetically determined? This is a very controversial subject, but most men and most women would think that there are significant differences, and so do I. An enormous scientific literature, often disputed, has been devoted to the subject and it is one that arouses strong passions. There has even been criticism of some of this scientific literature to add to the controversy–namely, the assertion that some investigators may have biased their research deliberately to show differences, since a result of an investigation showing no difference between males and females would be less interesting.

  Are there significant biological factors that make women behave differently from men, or are all the apparent differences due to social and cultural factors? I am a developmental biologist who has studied how embryos develop from the fertilised egg. Genes control the development of the embryo by providing the codes for making proteins which largely determine how cells behave. The cells in the human embryo give rise to the structure and function of our brains and bodies. We are essentially a society of cells which come from the egg and which determine who we are. They determine whether we are male or female, and I want to understand whether important differences in the behaviour of men and women are largely controlled by their genes during development and by the action of hormones both in the womb and in later life. This is particularly relevant in relation to men and women’s intellectual, emotional and physical abilities and their social behaviour.

  And why are there two sexes? This is a difficult problem related to our evolution, and most animals have two sexes. But there are some species with just one, and with these, asexual reproduction is possible, if simpler and less enjoyable. Evolution has selected differences between men and women so as to make their reproduction as successful as possible. What are the evolutionary advantages of two sexes and of the genetically specified differences between men and women? Are there differences in intelligence and mental skills, language and motor skills?

  The development of the brain, which determines how we behave, involves billions of nerve cells making innumerable connections with each other, and this is controlled by genes. We need to understand the differences that develop between male and female brains. The hormone environment in the embryo, controlled by genes, clearly contributes to the development of the physical and mental differences between males and females. Genes on the sex chromosomes explain why most people are heterosexual, for example. In other animal species, research has shown that the early hormone environment clearly has long-term effects on behaviour by changing the development of the brain, but the specific changes involved in humans have only recently begun to be identified and are a controversial area.

  Also controversial are the many sex differences that have been described between human male and female brains, but only a few of these seem to be relevant to sex differences in behaviour. Regions of the brain, such as the hypothalamus and amygdala, which play key roles in processing emotions and sexual behaviour, have receptors for male hormones like testosterone, but much work still needs to be done in discovering reliable links between these hormones, the development of the brain and different behaviour in men and women. I will look at the structural differences between male and female brains revealed by the powerful techniques of MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) as well as by post-mortem examinations. MRI allows one to identify which bit of the brain is active under different conditions, such as thinking about a particular problem, being under stress or engaging in sexual activity.

  One well-supported scientific view is that there are inborn differences between the minds of men and women. But this view is being challenged by scientists who call this the pseudoscience of ‘neurosexism’, and are raising concerns about its implications. They emphasise instead social influences, such as stereotyping, in determining the differences in the behaviour of the two sexes. If, for example, parents tell boys that they have less chance of acquiring good verbal skills than their sisters, and tell
girls that they have little prospect of developing skills in maths, this can seriously and negatively affect their acquisition of skills in these subjects.

  The evidence for some genetic differences in males and females is, however, overwhelming–just consider our bodies. Yet it has been cogently argued that sex differences in behaviour do not have a genetic basis, instead being socially determined. In this book I shall question the claims made for greater ability of males or females in a number of intellectual and emotional spheres, looking in detail at maths and science, motor abilities, analysis of complex systems, empathy and language skills. Much of the recent literature claims that men and women differ in a number of emotions, linguistic ability, memory, spatial reasoning and even in their sense of humour. If the differences are significant it could mean that men and women are naturally suited to different kinds of work. For example, the small number of women employed in areas related to engineering and technology might be related to their psychological function.

  Some commentators see differences to be solely a matter of biology, with no social or cultural interventions, though, as we shall see, social conditioning can shape some biological features. The Oxford English Dictionary defines feminism as ‘Advocacy of equality of the sexes and the establishment of the political, social, and economic rights of the female sex’, and some feminists promote what is called the similarities hypothesis, which contends that the psychological similarities between males and females outweigh the differences. In effect, males and females are more alike than they are different.

  All this will be considered in some detail, as will differences in emotional attitudes between men and women and the nature of sexual attraction.

  In discussing biological differences I have, with just a few exceptions, left out the enormous literature on other male and female mammals such as chimpanzees. There is some hesitation in accepting its direct relevance to humans and, while I think many studies are relevant, many are not. In addition, I rarely refer to behavioural and brain studies on mice–we like to think we are very distinct from them.

  Helen Bradford Thompson made the earliest scientific study of sex differences in cognitive abilities in 1903 at the University of Chicago. Her pioneering work failed to show any differences in the emotional abilities of men and women, and only very small differences in intellectual capabilities, which she attributed to social conditioning. But early brain studies concluded that women were intellectually inferior simply because they had smaller and lighter brains. Since then there has been a great deal of research, but questions still remain. In an interview for the New Scientist to mark his seventieth birthday in January 2012, the theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking admitted he spent most of the day thinking about women. ‘They are’, he said, ‘a complete mystery.’

  In discussing male–female differences the term ‘gender’ is not used in the same way as ‘sex’. Gender refers to socially constructed roles and characteristics used to distinguish between males and females in a given society. There is a distinction between biological sex and gender, as sex refers to the biological characteristics, namely the genetic constitution of an individual, whereas gender refers to their personal identity, beliefs and behaviour. Sexologist John Money first made the distinction between the terms almost sixty years ago. The word ‘gender’ grew to be used in relation to how individuals identify themselves. The words ‘male’ and ‘female’ are sex categories, while ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ are gender categories, according to the World Health Organization. Differences between men and women, as I have said, are controversial and there are many books on the subject, some of them science-based. But there are also very popular books like John Gray’s Men Are from Mars and Women Are from Venus, and Why Men Don’t Listen and Women Can’t Read Maps by Allan and Barbara Pease. These amusing books focus largely on widely held beliefs about differences in communication and the relationships of couples, and stress the possible innate differences between the minds of men and women. There are, of course, numerous scholarly books on this topic too, as we shall see.

  It has been suggested by Deborah Cameron in her book The Myth of Mars and Venus ‘that some writers on this subject can be thought of as latter-day Galileos, braving the wrath of the “political correctness” lobby by daring to challenge the feminist orthodoxy which denies that men and women are by nature profoundly different.’ Cameron recounts how Simon Baron-Cohen, in his book The Essential Difference, explains in his introduction that he put the book aside for several years because ‘the topic was just too politically sensitive’. In the chapter in his book about human nature, The Blank Slate, Steven Pinker congratulates himself on having the courage to say what has long been ‘unsayable in polite company about male–female differences’. Cameron points out that neither writer has a political axe to grind, and that they are simply following the evidence where it leads and trying to put scientific facts in place of dogma. I shall be trying to do exactly that myself and am certainly no Galileo. But my most basic and potentially controversial contribution to the subject is my conviction, based on embryonic development, that men are fundamentally modified females. Not ‘Why can’t a woman be more like a man?’ but rather ‘Why isn’t a man more like a woman?’

  I first look at the evidence for discrimination against women and their subordination throughout history.

  2

  Discrimination

  For most of history, Anonymous was a woman.

  Virginia Woolf

  Men have dominated all societies from the earliest known times. In almost every society, the primary tasks of men and women have been different. Men are given responsibility for the government of the society, and women responsibility for the daily care of the household and children. Thus the female has been in many ways subordinate to the male and has generally had a lower status. Almost all inventors of modern technology have been male, and similarly most artists who have shaped our world have been men. There have, of course, been some very important women working in these areas, but historically the list is tiny in comparison to the number of men. What is the basis for this? Is it social or biological?

  Understanding the differences between men and women could help to explain why women have suffered so much discrimination. Men and women are certainly different, as their sexual behaviour makes all too clear, and all societies accept this, but the belief that women are biologically and intellectually inferior to men has also been widely held and has an ancient history. Hunting and gathering was the ancient means of getting food, and men did the hunting while women gathered food locally and looked after the children. Women were there to provide domestic comfort and, of course, children, but many were looked on more as servants than equals.

  In a very small number of societies women have played a more powerful part. One example is the Iroquois in North America, in whose society mothers have important moral and political roles. Another example is in Meghalaya in north-eastern India, where women run businesses, dominate households and take all key family decisions. They also inherit all property. There are other matrilineal societies where descent is via the female line. It is also claimed that in primitive societies this system preceded that of descent through males.

  Women were subordinate in the most ancient cultures, such as those of the ancient Mesopotamian societies of Sumer and Assyria, whose religions and laws even prevented women from having control over their reproductive function. In ancient Egypt, however, women were given equal rights with men under the law. They could initiate divorce, control their own property and finances, and appear in court as witnesses. A woman could even become a pharaoh, though only a handful did. Even so, men still played a far larger part in government while women continued to spend most of their time at home. Nevertheless the Greek historian Herodotus, who claimed he had visited Egypt around 450 BC, thought the Egyptians had ‘reversed the ordinary practices of mankind’. In the ancient civilisation of Babylon women had similar status, enjoying complete independence and equa
l rights with their husbands and brothers.

  In Greek society the status of women was determined mainly by the standing of the men in their lives, their husbands and fathers. In Athens wives seem to have been considered of use only in producing children, particularly male children, and contributed little to society in their own right. Around 800 BC the poet Hesiod wrote about how Zeus, chief of the gods in Greek mythology, created a beautiful first woman, Pandora, who was moulded out of earth. She was given unique gifts including a jar not to be opened in any circumstances. But she was tempted to open the jar that she had been given and released terrible evil into the world. There are striking similarities between the legend of Pandora and that of Eve in the Bible, as both are about the creation of the first woman, her disobedience of a divine command, and her thereby becoming a disseminator of evil, a status which was extended to all females. Eve ate an apple from the Tree of Knowledge and she and Adam were accordingly expelled from the Garden of Eden. Women were already doing badly in these accounts–which came, of course, from men.

  Aristotle believed females to be physiologically and psychologically inferior to males. Yet in Greek mythology the Amazons were a nation of female warriors, and in classical Greek and Roman religions goddesses were worshipped. But their apparent high status did not help their earthly sisters much. With respect to reproduction, a woman was seen as essentially an infertile male, and the development of the embryo was attributed entirely to the male’s input of sperm.

  In early Roman law women were inferior to men and were described as children. Although Roman women were citizens, they could neither vote, run for office nor work in government. Young unmarried women were controlled by their fathers, and on marrying passed into the control of their husbands. Later, under the Roman Empire, women were give more freedom and had more public influence, even if this was largely limited to those in the educated upper classes. But women in general were still dependent, mistrusted, and looked upon as frail creatures.